CHAPTER 3
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS
MODERATE PHASE AND EARLY
CONGRESS (1858-1905)
The rise and growth
of Indian nationalism has been traditionally
explained in terms
of Indian response to the stimulus generated by the
British Raj through
creation of new institutions, new opportunities,
resources, etc. In
other nationalism grew Eutly.was a result of colonial
policies reaction.
In fact, it would be more correct to see Indian
nationalism as a
product of a mix of various factors.
(i) Worldwide
upsurge of the concepts of nationalism and right of
self-determination
initiated by the French Revolution.
(ii) Indian
Renaissance.
(iii) Offshoot of
modernisation initiated by the British
in India.
(iv) Strong
reaction to British imperialist policies in
India.
FACTORS IN GROWTH OF MODERN
NATIONALISM
Understanding of
Contradiction in Indian and Colonial Interests
People came to
realise that colonial rule was the major cause of India's
economic
backwardness and that the interests of the Indians involved the
interests of all
sections and classes—peasants, artisans,
handicraftsmen,
workers, intellectuals, the educated and the
capitalists. The
nationalist movement arose to take up the challenge of
these
contradictions inherent in the character and policies of colonial
rule.
Political,
Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country
The British rule in
the Indian subcontinent extended—from the Himalayas
in the north to the
Cape Comorinirt the south and from Assam in the
east to Khyber Pass
in the west. The British created a larger state than
that of the Mauryas
or the great Mughals
60 A BRIEF HISTORY OF MODERN
INDIA
While Indian provinces were under
'direct' British
rule, Indian states were under 'indirect' British rule.
The British sword
imposed political unity in India. A professional civil
service, a unified
judiciary and codified civil and criminal laws
throughout the
length and breadth of the country imparted a new
dimension of
political unity to the hitherto cultural unity that had
existed in India
for centuries. The necessities of administrative
convenience,
considerations of military defence and the urge for
economic
penetration and commercial exploitation were the driving
forces behind the
planned development of modern means of transport and
communication such
as railways, roads, electricity and telegraph.
From the
nationalists' point of view, this process of unification had a
two-fold effect:
(i) Economic fate
of the people of different regions got linked
together; for
instance, failure of crops in one region affected the
prices and supply
in another region.
(ii) Modern means
of transport and communication brought people,
especially the
leaders, from different regions together. This was
important for
exchange of political ideas and for mobilisation and
organisation of public
opinion on political and economic issues.
Western Thought and
Education The introduction of a modern system of
education afforded
opportunities for assimilation of modern western
ideas. This, in
turn, gave a new direction to Indian political thinking,
although the
English system of education had been conceived by the
rulers in the
interest of efficient administration. The liberal and
radical thought of
European writers like Milton, Shelley, John Stuart
Mill, Rousseau,
Paine, Spencer and Voltaire helped many Indians imbibe
modern rational,
secular, democrAtic and nationalist ideas.
The English
language helped nationalist leaders from different
linguistic regions
to communicate with each other. Those among the
educated who took
up liberal professions (lawyers, doctors, etc.) often
visited England for
higher
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 61
education. There
they saw the working of modern political institutions
in a free country
and compared that system with the Indian situation
where even basic
rights were denied to the citizens. This everexpanding
English educated
class formed the middle class intelligentsia
who constituted the
nucleus for the newly arising political unrest. It
was this section
which provided leadership to the Indian political
associations.
ROLE OF PRESS AND LITERATURE
The second half of
the nineteenth century saw an unprecedented growth of
Indian owned
English and vernacular newspapers, despite numerous
restrictions
imposed on the press by the colonial rulers from time to
time. In 1877,
there were about 169 newspapers published in vernacular
languages and their
circulation reached the neighbourhood of 1,00,000.
The press while
criticising official policies, on the one hand, urged
the people to
unite, on the other. It also helped spread modern ideas of
self-government,
democracy, civil rights and industrialization. The
newspapers,
journals, pamphlets and nationalist literature helped in the
exchange of
,political ideas among nationalist leaders from different
regions.
REDISCOVERY OF INDIA'S PAST
The historical
researches by European scholars, such as Max Mueller,
Monier Williams,
Roth and Sassoon, and by Indian scholars such as R.G.
Bhandarkar, R.L.
Mitra and later Swami Vivekananda, created an entirely
new picture of
India's past. This picture was characterized by welldeveloped
political, economic
and social institutions, a flourishing
trade with the
outside world, a rich heritage in arts and culture and
numerous cities.
The theory put forward by European scholars, that the
Indo-Aryans
belonged to the same ethnic group from which other nations
of Europe had
evolved, gave a psychological boost to the educated
Indians. The
self-respect and confidence so gained helped the
nationalists to
demolish colonial myths that India had a long history
of servility to
foreign rulers.
Progressive
Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements
These reform
movements sought to remove social evils which divided the
Indian society;
this had the effect
62 A BRIEF HISTORY OF MODERN
INDIA
of bringing
different sections together, and proved to be an important
factor in the
growth of Indian nationalism.
RISE OF MIDDLE CLASS INTELLIGENTSIA
British
administrative and economic innovations gave rise to a new urban
middle class in
towns. According to Percival Spear, "The new middle
class was a
well-integrated all-India class with varied background but a
common, foreground
of knowledge, ideas and values. It was a minority of
Indian society, but
a dynamic minority. It had a sense of unity of
purpose and of
hope.
This class,
prominent because of its education, new position and its
close ties with the
ruling class, came to the forefront. The leadership
to the Indian
National Congress in all its stages of growth was provided
by this class.
IMPACT OF CONTEMPORARY
MOVEMENTS WORLDWIDE
Rise of a number of
nations on the ruins of Spanish and Portuguese
empires in South
America, and the national liberation movements of
Greece and Italy in
general and of Ireland in particular deeply
influenced the
nationalist ranks.
Reactionary
Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers
Racial myths of
white superiority were sought to be perpetuated by a
deliberate policy
of discrimination and segregation. Indians felt deeply
hurt by this.
Lytton's reactionary policies such as reduction of maximum
age limit for the
I.C.S. examination 'from 21 years to 19 years (1876),
the grand Delhi
Durbar of 1877 when the country was in the severe grip
of famine, the
Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878)
provoked a storm of
opposition in the country. Then came the Ilbert Bill
controversy.
Ripon's Government had sought to abolish, "judicial
disqualification
based on race distinctions" and to give the Indian
members of the
covenanted civil service the same powers and rights as
those enjoyed by
their European colleagues. Ripon had to modify the
bill, which almost
defeated the original purpose, because of stiff
opposition from the
European community.
It became clear, to
the nationalists that justice and fair play could
not be expected
where interests of the European community were involved.
However, the
organized agitation
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 63
by the Europeans to
revoke the. Ilbert Bill also taught the nationalists
how to agitate for
certain rights and demands.
POLITICAL
ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
The political
associations in the early half of the nineteenth century
were dominated by
wealthy and aristocratic elements, local or regional
in character, and
through long petitions to the British Parliament
demanded—
* administrative
reforms,
* association of
Indians with the administration, and
* spread of
education.
The political
associations of the second half of the nineteenth century
came to be
increasingly dominated by the educated middle class—the
lawyers,
journalists, doctors, teachers, etc. and they had a wider
perspective and a
larger agenda.
Political
Associations in Bengal
The Bangabhasha
Prakasika Sabha was formed in 1836 by associates of Raja
Rammohan Roy.
The Zamindari
Association, more popularly known as the 'Landholders'
Society', was
founded to safeguard the interests of the landlords.
Although limited in
its objectives, the Landholders' Society marked the
beginning of an
organized political activity and use of methods of
constitutional
agitation for the redressal of grievances.
The Bengal British
India Society was founded in 1843 with the object of
the collection and
dissemination of information relating to the actual
condition of the
people of British India and to employ such other means,
of peaceful and
lawful character as may appear calculated to secure the
welfare, extend the
just rights and advance the interests of all classes
of our feliow
subjects.
In 1851, both the
Landholders' Society and the Bengal British India
Society merged into
the British Indian Association. It sent a petition to
the British
Parliament demanding
64 A BRIEF HISTORY OF MODERN
INDIA
inclusion of some
of its suggestions in the renewed Charter of the
Company, such as
(i) establishment
of a separate legislature of a popular Character
(iii) separation of
executive from judicial functions
(iv) reduction in
salaries of higher officers
(iv) abolition of
salt duty, abkari and stamp duties.
These were
partially accepted when the Charter Act of 1853 provided for
the addition of six
members to the governorgeneral's council for
legislative
purposes.
The East India
Association was organized by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in
LondbiiiO disctiSs
the Indian question and influence public men in
England to promote
Indian welfare. Later, branches of the association
were started in
prominent Indian cities.
The Indian League
was started in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh with the
object of
"stimulating the sense of nationalism amongst the people" and
of encouraging
political education.
The Indian
Association of Calcutta superseded the Indian League and was
founded in 1876 by
younger nationalists of Bengal led by Surendranath
Banerjee and Ananda
Mohan Bose, who were getting discontented with the
conservative and
pro-landlord policies of the British Indian
Association. The
Indian Association of Calcutta was the most important
of preCongress
associations and aimed to
(i) create a strong
public opinion on political questions, and
(ii) unify Indian
people on a common political
programme.
Branches of the
association were opened in other towns and cities of
Bengal and even
outside Bengal. The membership fee was kept low in order
to attract the
poorer sections to the association.
Political
Associations in Bombay
The Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by M.Mahadeo Govind
Ranade and others,
with the object of serving as a bridge between the
government and the
people.
The Struggle Begins
65
The Bombay
Presidency Association was started by Badruddin Tyabji,
Pherozshah Mehta
and K.T. Telang in 1885.
POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS IN
MADRAS
The Madras Mahajan
Sabha was founded in 1884 by M. Viraraghavachari, B.
Subramaniya Aiyer
and P. Anandacharlu.
PRE-CONGRESS
CAMPAIGNS
These associations
organized various campaigns before the first—all-
India
association—the Indian National Congress appeared on the scene.
These campaigns
were—
(i) for imposition
of import duty on cotton (1875)
(ii) for
Indianisation of government service (1878-79)
(iii) against
Lytton's Afghan adventure
(iv) against Arms
Act (1878)
(v) against
Vernacular Press Act (1878)
(vi) for right to
join volunteer corps
(vii) against
plantation labour and against Inland
Emigration Act
(viii) in support
of Ilbert Bill
(ix) for an All
India Fund for Political Agitation
(x) campaign in
Britain to vote for pro-India party
(ii) against
reduction in maximum age for appearing in Indian
Civil Service; the
Indian Association took up this question
and organized an
all-India agitation against it, popularly
known as the Indian
Civil Service agitation.
(iii)
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS—ITS
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Solid ground had thus
been prepared for the establishment of an all-
India organisation.
The final shape to this idea was given by a retired
English civil
servant, A.O. Hume, who mobilised. leading intellectuals
of the time and
with their cooperation organized the first session of
the Indian National
Congress at Bombay in December 1885. As a prelude to
this, two sessions
of the Indian National Conference had been held
in 1883 and 1885,
which had representatives drawn from all major towns
of India.
Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose were the main
architects of the
Indian National Conference.
The first session
of the Indian National Congress was, attended by 72
delegates and
presided over by Vomesh Chandra Bonnerjee. Hereafter, the
Congress met every
year in December, in a different part of the country
each time. Some of
the great presidents of the Congress during this
early phase were
Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice president), 13adruddin Tyabji,
Pherozshah Mehta,
P. Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjee, Romesh Chandra
Dutt, Ananda Mohan
Bose and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Other prominent
leaders included
Mahadeo Govind Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sisir Kumar
Ghosh, Motilal
Ghosh, Madan Mohan Malaviya, G. Subramaniya Aiyar, C.
Vijayaraghavachariar,
Dinshaw E. Wacha.
In 1890, Kadambiny
the first woman graduate of Caktiffa University
addressed the
Congress session, which symbolised the commitment of the
freedom struggle to
give the women of India their due status in national
life.
Apart from the
Indian National Congress, nationalist activity was
carried out through
provincial conferences and associations, newspapers
and literature.
Aims and Objectives
of the Congress
These were to—
(i) found a
democratic, nationalist movement;
(ii) politicise and
politically educate people;
(iii) establish the
headquarters for a 'movement;
(iv) promote
friendly relations among nationalist political workers from
different parts of
the country;
(v) develop and
propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology;
(vi) formulate and
present popular demands before the Government with a
view to unifying
the people over a common economic and political
programme;
(vii) develop and
consolidate a feeling of national unity among people
irrespective of
religion, caste or province.
(viii) carefully
promote and nurture Indian nationhood.
The Struggle Begins
67
WAS IT A SAFETY VALVE?
There is a theory
that Hume formed the Congress with the idea that it
would prove to be a
'safety valve' for releasing the growing discontent
of the Indians. To
this end he convinced Lord Dufferin not to obstruct
the formation of
the Congress. Modern Indian historians, however,
dispute the idea of
'safety valve'. In their opinion the Indian National
Congress
represented the urge of the politically conscious Indians to
set up a national
body to express the political and economic demands of
the Indians. If the
Indians had convened such a body on their own, there
would have been
unsurmountable opposition from the officials; such an
organisation would
not have been allowed to form. In the circumstances,
as Bipin Chandra
observes, the early Congress leaders used Hume as a
'lightning
conductor' i.e., as a catalyst to bring together the
nationalistic
forces even if under the guise of a 'safety valve'.
METHODS OF
POLITICAL WORK OF THE EARLY MODERATES (1885-1905)
The national
leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E.
Wacha, W.C.
Bonnerjee, S.N. Banerjee who dominated the Congress policies
during this period
were staunch believers in 'liberalism' and 'moderate'
politics
ancrainT-LobelaTe117d as Moderates To distin om the neonationalists
of the early
twentieth century who were referred to as the
Extremists.
The moderate
political activity involved constitutional agitation within
the confines of law
and showed a slow but orderly political progress.
The Moderates
believed that the British basically wanted to be just to
the Indians but
were not aware of the real conditions. Therefore, if
public opinion
could be created, in the country and public demands be
presented to the
Government through resolutions, petitions, meetings,
etc., the
authorities would concede these demands gradually.
To achieve these
ends, they worked on a two-pronged methodology—one,
create a
consciousness and national spirit and then educate and unite
people on common
political e
The Struggle Begins
69
68 A BRIEF HISTORY OF MODERN
INDIA
British Government
and British public opinion to introduce reforms in
India on the lines
laid out by the nationalists. For this purpose, a
British committee
of the Indian National Congress was established in
London in 1899
which had Indiri as its organ. Dadabhai Naoroji spent a
portion of his life
and income campaigning for India's case
abroad:in1890, it
was decided to hold a session of the Indian National
Congress in London
in 1892, but owing to the British elections of 1891
the proposal was
postponed and never revived later.
The Moderate
leaders believed that political connections with Britain
were in India's
interest at that stage of history and that the time was
not ripe for a
direct challenge to the British rule. Therefore, it was
considered to be
appropriate to try and transform the colonial rule to
approximate to a
national rule.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF
MODERATE NATIONALISTS
Economic Critique
of British Imperialism
The early
nationalists, led by Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw
Wacha and others,
carefully analysed the political economy of British
rule in India, and
put forward, the to explain British exploitation of
India. They opposed
the transformation of a basically self-sufficient
Indian economy into
a colonial economy (i.e., a supplier of raw materials
and fooes an
importer of finished goods and a field of investment for
British capital).
Thus, the Moderates were able to create an all-India
public opinion that
British rule in India was the major cause of
India's poverty and
economic backwardness.
To mitigate the
deprivation characterising Indian life, the early
nationalists
demanded severance of India's economic subservience to
Britain and
development of an independent economy through involvement of
Indian capital and
enterprise. The early nationalists demanded reduction
in land revenuer
abolition of salt tax, improvement in working
conditions of
plantation labour, reduction in military expenditure, and
encouragement to
modern industry through tariff protection and direct
government aid.
(Also refer to chapter on Economic Impact of British
Rule in India.)
Constitutional
Reforms and Propaganda in Legislature
Legislative
councils in India had no real official power till 1920. Yet,
work done in them
by the nationalists helped the growth of the national
movement. The
Imperial Legislative Council constituted by the Indian
Councils Act (1861)
was an impotent body–deSigned to disguise official
measures as having
been passed by a > representative body. Indian
members were few in
number—thirty years from 1862 to 1892 only for
brLfiye. Indians
were nominated to it most of them being wealthy,
landed and,
loyalist, interests. Only a handful of political figures and
intellectuals such
as Ahmed Khan, Kristodas Pal, V.N. Mandlik, K.L.
Nulkar and
Rashbehari Ghosh were nominated.
From 1885 to 1892,
the nationalist demands for constitutional reforms
were centred around
1. expansion of
councils—i.e., greater participation of Indians in
councils,
2. reform of
councils—i.e., more powers to councils, especially greater
control over
finances.
The early
nationalists worked with the long-term objective of a
democratic
self-government. Their demands for constitutional reforms
were conceded in
1892 in the form of the Indian Councils Act.
These reforms were
severely criticised at Congress sessions, where the
nationalists made
no secret of their dissatisfaction with them. Now,
they demanded (i) a
majority of elected Indians, and (ii) control over
the budget i.e.,
the 'power to vote upon and amend the budget. They gave
the slogan—"No
taxation without representation'. Gradually, the scope
of constitutional
demands was widened and Dadabhai Naoroji (1904), Gopal
Krishna Gokhale
(1905) and Lokmanya Tilak (1906) demanded selfgovernment
like the
self-governing colonies of Canada and Australia.
Also, leaders like
Pherozshah Mehta and Gokhale put government policies
and proposals to
severe criticism.
The British had
intended to use the councils to incorporate the more
vocal among Indian
leaders, so as to allow them to let off their
"political
steam", while the impotent councils
70 A BRIEF HISTORY OF MODERN
INDIA
Indian Councils Act
1892.
The main provisions
of this Act were as follows.
• Number of
additional members in Imperial Legislative Councils and the
Provincial
Legislative Councils was raised. In Imperial Legislative
Council, now the
governor-general could have ten to sixteen nonofficials
(instead of six to
ten previously).
• Some of these
additional members could be indirectly elected Thus an
element of election
was introduced for the first time.
• Budget could be
discussed.
• Questions could
be asked.
But there were
certain limitations of these reforrns.
• The officials
retained their majority in the council, thus leaving
ineffective the
non-official voice.
• The 'reformed'
Imperial Legislative Council met, during its tenure
till 1909, on an
average for only thirteen days in a year, and the
number of
unofficial Indian members present was only five out of twentyfour.
• The budget could
not be voted upon, nor could any amendments be made
to it.
• Supplementaries
could not be asked, nor could answers be discussed.
could afford to
remain, deaf to their criticism. But the nationalists
were able to
transform these councils into forums for;ventilating
popular grievances,
for exposing the defects of an indifferent
bureaucracy, for
criticising government policies/proposals, raising
basic economic
issues, especially regarding public finance.
The nationalists
were, thus, able to enhance their political stature and
build a national
movement while undermining the political and moral
influence, of
imperialist rule. This helped in generating antiimperialist
sentiments among
the public. But, at the same time, the
nationalists failed
to widen the democratic base of the movement by not
including the
masses, especially women, and not demanding the right to
vote for all.
Campaign for
General Administrative Reforms
These included the
following:
Indianisation of
government service: on the economic grounds that
British civil
servants expected very high emoluments
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 71
while inclusion of
Indians would be more economical; on political
grounds that, since
salaries of British bureaucrats were remitted back
home and pensions
paid in England, this amounted to economic drain; and
on moral grounds
that Indians were being discriminated against by being
kept away from
positions of trust and responsibility.
Separation from,
executive functions.
CriticismotaaQ1qrrannicalbureaucracy
and an expensive and
time-consuming
judicial system.
Criticism
aggressive forei:7n policy which resulted in Afghanistan war
and suppression of
tribals in the North-West.
Increase in
expenditure on welfare (i.e., health, sanitation),
education—especial
and technical— irrigation works and improvement of
agriculture,
agricultural banks for cultivators, etc.
Better treatment
for Indian labour abroad in other British colonies, who
faced oppression
and racial discrimination there.
Defence of Civil
Rights These rights included the right to speech,
thought,
association and expression an incessant campaign, the
nationalists were
able to spread modern democratic ideas, and soon the
defence of civil
rights became an integral part of the freedom struggle.
It was due to the
increased consciousness that there was a great public
outrage at the
arrest of Tilak and several other leaders and journalists
in 1897 and at the
arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a
trial. (Also refer
to chapter on Development of Press in India.)
AN EVALUATION OF THE EARLY
NATIONALISTS
(i) They
represented the most progressive forces of the time.
(ii) They were able
to create a wide national awakening of all Indians
having common
interests and the need to rally around a common programme
against a common
enemy, and above all, the feeling of belonging to one
nation.
(iii) They trained
people in political work and popularised modern
ideas.
72 A Brief History
of Modern India
(iv) They exposed
the basically exploitative character of colonial rule,
thus undermining
its moral foundations.
(v) Their political
work was based on hard realities, and not on shallow
sentiments,
religion, etc.
(vi) They were able
to establish the basic political truth that India
should be ruled in
the interest of Indians.
(vii) They created
a solid base for a more vigorous, militant, massbased
national movement
in the following years.
(vii) However, they
failed to widen their democratic base and the
scope of their
demands.
ROLE OF MASSES
The moderate phase
ofthe national movement had a narrow social base and
the masses played a
passive role. This was because the early nationalists
lacked political
faith in the masses; they felt that there were
numerous' divisions
and subdivisions in the Indian society, and the
generally ignorant
and had conservative ideas and thoughts. These
heterogeneous
elements had first to be welded into a nation before their
entry into the
political sphere. But they failed to realise that it was
only during the
freedom struggle and political participation that these
diverse elements
were to come together. Because of the lack of mass
participation, the
Moderates could not take militant political positions
against the
authorities. The later nationalists differed from the
Moderates precisely
on this point. Still, the early nationalists
represented the
emerging Indian nation against colonial interests.
ATTITUDE OF THE GOVERNMENT
The British Indian
Government was hostile to the Congress from the
beginning despite
the latter's moderate methods and emphasis on loyalty
to the British Crown.
The official attitude stiffened further after 1887
when the Government
failed to persuade ,the Congress to confine itself
to social questions
while the Congress was becoming increasingly
critical of the
colonial rule. Now, the Government resorted to open
The Struggle Begins
73
condemnation of the
Congress, calling the nationalists "seditious,
brahmins",
"disloyal babus", etc,,Dufferin called, the Congress "a
factory of
sedition". Later, the Government adopted a 'divide and rule'
policy towards the
Congress., The officials encouraged reactionary
elements and Raja
Shiv Prasad Singh of Benaras to organize the United
Patriotic
Association to counter, Congress propaganda. The Government
also tried to
divide the nationalists on the basis and, through a
policy of 'carrot
and stick', pitted the Mocleratesaaain.st the
Extremists. But the
Government failed' to check the rising tide of
Aationatism.
Views
"You don't
realise our place in the history of our country. These
memonais are
nominally auuresseuU IC reality they are addressed to the
people, so mat tney
may learn how to think in these matters. This work
must be done for
many years, without expecting any other results,
because politics of
this kind is altogether new in this land." Justice
Mahadeo Govind
Ranade to Gokhale (1891)
We cannot blame
them for the attitude they adopted as pioneers of Indian
political reform
any more than we can blame the brick and mortar that is
buried six feet
deep in the foundation and, plinth of a modern edifice.
They have made possible
the superstructure, storey by storey, by
colonial
selfgovernment, home rule within the empire, swaraj and on the
top of all,
complete independence. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
The period from
1858 to 1905 was the seed time of Indian nationalism;
and the early
nationalists sowed the seeds well and deep. Bipin Chandra
It was at,best an
opportunist movement. It opened opportunities for
treacheries and
hypocrisies. It enabled some people to trade in the name
of patriotism. Lala
Lajpat Rai
The Congress is
tottering to its fall, and one of my great ambitions
while in India is
to assist it to a peat:awl
74 A. BRIEF HISTOR'Y OF MODERN
INDIA
Summary
FACTORS IN GROWTH
OF MODERN "NATIONALISM
Understanding of
contradictions in Indian and colonial interests
Political, administrative
and economic unification of the country.
Western thought and
education
Role of press and
literature
Rediscovery of
India's past-historical researches
Rise of middle
class intelligentsia
Impact of
contemporary movements worldwide
Reactionary policies
and racial arrogance of rulers
POLITICAL
ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE INDIAN NATIONAL' CONGRESS
1836—Bangabhasha
Prakasika Sabha
Zamindari
Association or Landholders' Society
1843—Bengal British
India Society
1851—British Indian
Association
1866—East India Association
1875—Indian League
1876—Indian
Association of Calcutta
1867—Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha
1885—Bombay
Presidency Association
1884—Madras Mahajan
Sabha
EARLY NATIONALIST
METHODOLOGYConstitutional agitation within four walls
of law
Create public
opinion in India and campaign for support to Indian
demands in England
Political education
of people
Political
connections with Britain in India's interests at that stage
Time not ripe for
direct challenge to colonial rule
CONTRIBUTIONS OF
MODERATE NATIONALISTS
Economic critique
of British imperialism
Constitutional
reforms and propaganda in legislature
Campaign for
general administrative reforms
Defence of civil
rights.
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